Recent developments in ballistics

Abstract

Ballistics, the science of projectile motion, encompasses the study of objects such as bullets, missiles, and rockets from launch to impact, divided into internal, external, terminal, and forensic ballistics. This paper explores recent advancements in ballistic materials, methods, and sustainability challenges. Traditional and self-healing materials, including microcapsule-based, bio-inspired, and metallic self-repairing systems, are examined for their applications in armor, projectiles, and thermal protection.

Experimental techniques like light gas guns and high-speed photography, alongside numerical simulations such as finite element analysis (FEA) and smoothed particle hydrodynamics (SPH), are compared for their efficacy in ballistic research. High-velocity projectiles exceeding Mach 5, including hypersonic and kinetic energy penetrators, are analyzed for their aerodynamic and material challenges, with future directions pointing toward AI-guided systems and 3D-printed materials.

The study also highlights green ammunition innovations, such as lead-free bullets and biodegradable cartridges, to address environmental concerns like toxic propellants and heavy metal contamination. Sustainability efforts focus on resource efficiency, including recycled composites and additive manufacturing, while military and civilian applications explore hypersonic swarms and non-lethal munitions.

The paper concludes with future perspectives, emphasizing digital twins in forensics, space ballistics, and closed-loop ammunition recycling. By integrating experimental and computational approaches, this research aims to advance ballistic technologies while addressing ecological and ethical challenges in the field.